Understanding Of Human Growth And Development Social Work Essay

Understanding Of Human Growth And Development Social Work Essay The field of psychology has vast areas of interest, and Human growth and development is one of the most popular topics being studied by social workers today. The purpose of this report is to show how essential it is for a trainee social worker to attain a firm understanding of human growth and development, and to ultimately achieve a foundation of knowledge in this area. This report will show that, with practice, preparation, assessment, reflection and finally application, this foundation of knowledge can be effectively used in positive intervention methods. (Crawford 2006) There have been many great theorists over the years, all of who had different ideas on human growth and development. This report will highlight and discuss 3 theories based on the work of Erikson, Bowlby and Bronfenbrenner. Furthermore, the report will also throw light on the pros and cons of these theories, identifying and discussing potential issues that may arise from failure to mature, as described in each theory. Finally, the report will identify the role of social workers in relation to their intervention with a client or family. The outcome of this report will be a sum-up of the key identifying points of each of the 3 theories. Using practical examples, the report will explore the effects of the theories and outcomes that may arise from failure to mature. The practical examples used will aid, guide and shape the discussion by highlighting the life span of the individual problems or issues, and will provide an underpinning reason for using each of the theories. Each theory chosen in this report is taken from a different discipline of social science; psychodynamic, sociological and psychosocial. These three disciplines all have a different emphasis, but structured in all of them is the core principle of determining what can potentially influence life course development. The first theory outlined in this report is Bowlbys attachment theory. This theory fundamentally sees the earliest bonds formed between children and their caregivers as a key factor in human growth and development, having an immense impact on progression and continuing throughout life. This theory will be examined, using social work examples with infants. There will be an explanation of how the theory is vastly important for attaining a firm understanding of the foundational relationships infants build for a healthy development. The second theory discussed in this report is Bronfenbrenners theory of ecological development. Bronfenbrenners theory describes the influences of further environmental factors on children, and their positive or negative development. For this theory, social work examples will be chosen from older adults in order to help attain an understanding of how environmental factors, at micro and macro levels, can influence social workers in relation to the stages of development. The final theory discussed in this report is Erik Eriksons model of life stage development. This theory addresses identity as an individual moves through the stages of life, and how they negotiate crisis points in a successful or unsuccessful progression, this effecting healthy development. For this theory, examples of middle-later stages of life will be discussed, and how progression through the life stages can successfully or unsuccessfully result in a healthy or unhealthy development of the individual. So, what can human growth and development be determined as? Before we discuss in depth the main theories, it would be appropriate to give a definition of human growth and development, and highlight why it is so fundamentally important for social workers to have a firm understanding of the various theories. According to Baltes cited in Crawford (date), human development is multi-dimensional; it is made up of biological, cognitive and social dimensions. Physically, from the moment we are conceived till the moment we die, we are developing biologically. Our bodies are consistently moving from one biological change to another. Subsequently, the growth of our intellectual and social development comes. This begins from very early stages in the course of life and continues across the span of each life. (Thompson) Both Freud and Erikson agree that every individual is born with a number of basic instincts, that development occurs through stages, and that the order of these stages is influenced by biological and sociological maturation (Sigelman, and Shaffer 1992). The Requirements for Social Work Training state that all social work programmes must: Ensure that the teaching of theoretical knowledge, skills and values is based on their application to practice. (Department of Health 2002) Theorists, such as Bowlby, Bronbenfrener and Erikson, have different perspectives on life span development stages and the individuals evolved behaviour as a consequence or a response to developmental milestones crises. These theories are rooted in the disciplines of sociology, biology and psychology. Each theory provides an explanation, in line with development, for arising issues and problems that individuals face and are all relevant to an understanding of the life course development. (Thompson) Social work practitioners need to have a wide range of knowledge from a span of theoretical disciplines to ensure that all aspects of an individuals make-up are considered and appreciated when working with them. (Crawford and walker) Using theory can give an explanation as to why an action resulted in a particular consequence. This can help us review and possibly change our practice in an attempt to make the consequences more effective. (Beckett) Developmental theory provides a framework for ordering the lifecycle and accounts. For factors that may shape development at specific stages. It discusses the multiple. Bio-psycho-social factors impacting development, explores the tasks to be accomplished. At each stage and considers successes and failures in light of other stages. Developmental theories also aim to recognise individual differences in development. Journal The course of life is different for each individual, and is influenced by the events and experiences that people go through throughout their lives. (Crawford and Walker, 2003) Understanding the impact of transitions within a persons course of life is important for social work practice, as it aids the social worker in attaining a firm understanding of other peoples lives, so they can effectively intervene with appropriate measures. Using theory can help justify actions and explain practice to service users, carers and society in general. The aim is for this to lead to social work becoming more widely accountable and ultimately more respected. (Beckett ) The use of theories in social work practice underpins how social workers approach their tasks. As social workers, we need to recognise the opportunities to work with people through transitions as an opportunity to grow. We need to try to enable people to use these events to trigger change, move on and develop. (Crawford) When a social worker works with an individual, utilising theories which may relate to a specific situation, will give us more direction in our work. It is clear then that theory is important in practice both for work with service users and for social work to be more valued in society. (Beckett) After the definition of human growth and development and the brief discussion of why a theory is important in social work practice, this report will now discuss the attachment theory and will explain why it can be positively used in approach and effectively in practice.4 So, what is the attachment theory? To start with, lets define the word attachment; it means a strong emotional bond between two people. Forming an attachment is based on a two-way interaction. The behaviours from an infant, such as crying, reaching, grasping and making eye contact, and the response of the caregiver both work as a reciprocal process to develop and strengthen attachment. (Woods) According to (Crawford), children use the people they are attached to as a safe base to explore, a source of comfort and a source of encouragement and guidance. According to (Fahlberg, 1991, cited in Howe), attachment aids children in attaining their full intellectual potential, sorts out what children perceives, assists them in logical thinking, helps them develop a conscience, teaches them to become more self-reliant, aids them in coping with stress and frustration, helps them handle fear and worry, assists them in developing future relationships and helps reduce jealousy.                  In 1953, a psychoanalyst named John Bowlby wrote the book Child Care and the Growth of Love. In this book, Bowlby put forward his theory that the relationship between a mother and her child, during the childs first year, is of vital importance and can greatly affect the development of the child in later life. This theory is known as the attachment theory, and it is still being used and discussed today, although it has been altered and adapted to suit the modern day economic environment and the change in the family unit over the past 50+ years. (Jeremy Holmes, 1993) Bowlby believes that attachment begins at infancy and develops throughout an individuals life, and that there are many distinctive behavioural control systems needed for continued existence and proliferation. The attachment and exploration systems are the main central points in Bowlbys attachment theory. (Elliot Reis, 2003) (Crawford) Bowlbys Maternal deprivation Hypostasis, the forerunner of the attachment theory, believes that if an infant was unable to develop a warm, intimate and continuous relationship with his or her mother or permanent mother substitute, then the child would have difficulty forming relationships with other people, and would be at the risk of behavioural disorders. Bowlby says: Mothers love in infancy and childhood is as important for mental health as vitamins and proteins are for physical health. (Cardwell) (Bowlby 1988) goes on to say that without a secure base of first attachment relationships, children will not be able to cope with separations of normal life. For Bowlby, the impact of prolonged separation on children is viewed as maternal deprivation. Bowlby describes this as being the temporary or permanent loss to children of their mothers care and attention. Bowlby believes that prolonged separation of children from their mothers, especially during the first five years of their lives, is a major cause of delinquent behaviours and mental health issues. (Crawford) Mary Ainsworth developed a method, whereby a childs behaviour is observed when reunited with his or her mother after a short separation.   This is known as the strange situation, and it has become widely used to determine whether the attachment was secure or insecure. Ainsworths strange situation is used to measure Bowlbys hypotheses that early relationship experiences affect later adult functioning. The strange situation procedure consists of eight three-minute episodes that have been arranged so as to create increasing levels of stress for a child that will activate attachment behaviours that researchers can then observe. The resulting behaviour was used to classify the child into one of three categories. These categories are insecure avoidant attachment, secure attachment and insecure resistant attachment. Securely attached children were able to balance their need to explore the environment with their need for comfort and support from their caregiver in relation to their feelings of stress.   Insecure avoidant attached children, when stressed, continued to explore the environment, showing minimal need for comfort and support.   The children who were classified as having insecure resistant attachments stop their exploration and return to their care giver show the maximum amount of attachment behaviours. Main (1991) has since identified a fourth category that of the disorganised/ disorientated child. (Cardwell) According to Bowlby a central tenet of attachment is that: People developmental representations, Or internal working models, that Consist of expectations about the self, significant Others and the relationship between the two. (Bowlby, 1969, 1973) The main criticism of Bowlbys attachment theory came from J.R. Harris. It is often assumed that hard working, kind, honest and well-respected parents will have children who will turn out to be like them. On the other hand, in the case of parents who are bad role models, rude, and disrespectful, the children will end up the same when they become adults. According to Harris, this may be far from the truth. Harris (2008), believes that a parent does not determine a childs personality or character, and that a childs external social factors have more influence than anything else. A good example of this taken from Harris is a child from an immigrant family. Although the parents may well pick up a new language, they will still have an accent from their native language. The child, on the other hand, will learn the new language, and will speak it without an accent. Children are more influenced by their peers than their parents. (Harris, 1998). Criticisms were also levelled at Bowlbys theories because of his ideas that he concluded from work he had undertaken with juvenile delinquents who had been separated early in their lives from their mothers. The criticism is that the theories are unrepresentative of the general population, and involved too small a sample. It was also argued that not all maternally deprived children became juvenile delinquents. But in agreement with Bowlby, Stroufe (1979) stated: We cannot assume that early experiences will somehow be cancelled out by later experiences. Lasting consequences of early inadequate experiences may be subtle and complex. (Cardwell) Research has shown that, contrary to Bowlbys idea of monotropy (one primary caregiver), children can form more than one significant attachment, and these need not be towards the biological parents, and can be of either sex, although there is often a definite hierarchy. An infants attachment to his or her father is as strong as the mothers in the first few days of life. Then the attachment changes because of the different amount of time available for the parents to interact with the infant, given the work commitments. Both the mother and the father are important attachment figures for their infants, but the circumstances that lead to selecting the mother or the father may differ. For example, the father is usually selected for playing. (Schaffer Emerson 1964) According to Parke (1981), Both the mother and the father are important attachment figures, the father is not just a poor substitute for the mother. (Cardwell) When looking at how attachment theory is applied to social work practice, Coulshed (1988) proposed that psychology has been useful in the degree to which you can apply some of the theories, if you are prepared to see theoretical contributions as ways of enriching your thinking and understanding. You will gain a broad framework of information through which you will recognise the complexities and possible causes of human suffering. The attachment theory provides a valuable model in understanding relationships of families in need and promoting new and healthy attachments (Daniel et al 1999).   The attachment theory has had an impact on many areas relating to how children are cared for, including the legal framework it operates under and how services for children have developed. Some of the areas, where clear links can be made to practice being underpinned by the attachment theory has effected changes, are; When negotiating contact between children and their families it is undertaken from a child centre perspective rather from the adults involved. This may include having closer links with grandparents, relatives and any other persons who the child considers significantly important to them. (Howe) Attachment theories underpin the policies that are relevant to the development of children in public care, and form the basis for assessing their needs, such as pre-placement and post-placement support systems. The effects of separation and loss that children have experienced can be taken into account when assessing their needs. (Oloughlin) Social Work as a profession can promote the needs of children through influencing policy and practice e.g. acknowledgement that delays in placing children may be detrimental to their wellbeing should ensure that the adoption and fostering processes can be as speedy and efficient as possible. Likewise, it is clear from research that children are adversely affected by the loss of familiar peers. Children who maintain friendships over time are seen to have greater social skills and better social adjustment. This should also be promoted. (Aldegate et al) The attachment theory has allowed optimism to develop towards caring for children, as a less distorted and confused picture of child development has emerged. It is now apparent that a healthy development can occur in many different family environments. There are many right ways of meeting childrens needs. (OLoughlin) The second theory discussed in this report is derived from the discipline of sociology. Sociological theoretical perspectives explain human development by examining the interactions between people and the society in which they live. Sociologist theorists research this by looking at influencing factors at different levels of society. (Crawford) Unlike other disciplines of human development theories in which service users problems are conceptualized on individual terms, sociological perspectives on human development seek to gain a full understanding by locating the persons problems within his or her experiences in a broader picture of social and historical circumstances. In other words, rather than directly focusing on the problem and the persons inability to cope, the problem would be assessed in terms of the impact of the economic and political conditions of the day. (Cunningham and Cunningham). One theorist whose theory has being particularly influential in the study of human development is Uri Bronfenbrenner 1917 2005. Bronfenbrenner developed a theory to explain how everything in a child and the childs environment affects how a child grows and develops. His theory is known as the ecological systems theory, and it approaches a childs development by looking at different levels of interaction, from family, local communities and schools to economic and political conditions that are all influential to the development of the individual in his or her course of life. He uses the terms Microsystems, exosystem and macrosystem. He suggests that there is a reciprocal process of interaction, in that the child is both influenced by and influences his or her environment at each of the levels. (Crawford) The ecological environment is thought of as: Nested structures encircled within and inside the other like a set of Russian dolls. Starting with the most inside to the outside, these networks are described as micro systems, meso systems and macro systems (Brunfenbrenner, 1994). The work of Bronfenbrenner has been particularly influential in social work practice and is the model that underpins the framework for the assessment of children in need and their families (department of health, 2000 cited in Crawford). The theory also encourages social workers to grasp the concept and understanding of the sociological imagination, and develop this in relation to service users own lives and practice. As social work intervenes at the points where people interact with their environments (NOSS), this approach, therefore, helps social workers to locate service users within an understanding of the bigger picture that underlies their lives. (NOSS) Applying an ecological approach can be best understood as looking at  persons, families, cultures, communities and policies, and identifying and intervening upon strengths and weaknesses in the transactional processes between these systems. A practical example of this in practice would be the use of the ecological perspective when carrying out assessment and for planning intervention for older adults in the community. Although it is theoretical, it is very practical, as it provides a kind of a map to guide us through very confusing terrain Stevenson 1998 cited in aldegate) The population of the UK is ageing. Over the last 25 years, the percentage of the population aged 65 and over increased from 15 per cent in 1984 to 16 per cent in 2009, an increase of 1.7 million people. (Gov statistics) Elderly individuals are vulnerable and in need of social services because they often live alone, and can be subject to numerous health difficulties, such as difficulties in functional ability. As senior adults experience an increased need for care, it is predicted that, in many cases, family caregivers will begin to have a higher level of physical, emotional and financial burden. All of these issues combined warrant an increase in research related to meeting the needs of the elderly and their families living in our communities (Crawford). EST is an ideal approach for assessing the needs of elderly adults living in communities. Given the rapidly increasing numbers of baby boomers reaching retirement age and beginning to require extended support, it is important for communities and families to address the best fit for the senior adult later in life. EST addresses the micro, meso and macro systems that are an extension of the individual, and works to obtain resources in order to improve support and expand networks necessary to maintain good quality of life for senior adults. (Journal) The ecological perspective analyzes how well the individual or family fits with their environment, and is based on the assumption that when a person or group is connected and engaged within a supportive environment, functioning improves. In order to determine the best fit, usually for an individual, there is an examination of the difference between the amount of social support needed by the person and the amount of social support available in the existing environment. Once this assessment has taken place, the social worker engages with the individual and works together with him or her to offer the support needed. One unique feature of the ecological model is its distinguished concept of human development within an environmental perspective. (Bekett) Social work practice has an overarching meta-paradigm that emphasizes the person in the environment. This meta-paradigm is linked with an ecological systems perspective as a focus of attention. EST is compatible with this belief system and helps support a theoretical approach for practice at the micro, meso and macro levels with individuals, families and communities. Social workers need to be aware of how the changing needs of families will affect psychosocial and emotional factors for the elderly individuals and their family caregivers. Examples of such issues include geographical location of family members when the senior adult is in need of care, role reversal when there is a shift in the family system and a parent becomes more dependent upon an adult child, and the anticipated grief and bereavement as spouses and adult children care for elderly family members over an extended period of time. The final theory of discussion is Erick Eriksons eight stages of man. Eriksons theory is an extension and modification to Freuds psychoanalytical theory on explaining the development of the personality through childhood stages of psychosexual development. Erikson, however, provides a more comprehensive framework for human lifespan through a series of genetically influenced sequence of psychosocial stages. The term psychosocial describes an approach that considers the impact of both the individual psychology and the social context of peoples lives on their individual development.(Crawford) Each stage involves a battle between contradictory resultant personalities, and each stage has either adaptive or maladaptive qualities. To develop into a healthy, mature adult, the adaptive must outweigh the maladaptive. (Richard Gross, 2005). In other words, he suggests that people confront a series of developmental challenges or conflicts, each occurring at particular and predictable times or sta ges in their lives. One of the main elements of Eriksons psychosocial stage theory is the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction. According to Erikson, our ego identity is constantly changing owing to new experience and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. In addition to ego identity (Quote), Erikson believes that a sense of competence also motivates behaviours and actions. Each stage in Eriksons theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which he sometimes refers to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy. (Quote) In each stage, Erikson believes people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in development. In Eriksons view, these conflicts are centred on either developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high, but so is the potential for failure. Eriksons eight life stages: 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Basic trust versus mistrust 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Self-control versus shame and doubt 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Initiative versus guilt 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Competence versus inferiority 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Identity versus role confusion 6.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Intimacy versus isolation 7.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Generativity versus stagnation 8.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ego-integrity versus despair Erikson suggests that whereas the outcome of moving through a life stage is unfavourable, the individual will find it more challenging to meet the trials of the next stage. Erikson further suggests that if individuals fail to develop through a stage, they may return to unsettled earlier points in their lives. (Crawford) Stage five is commonly associated with adolescence Erickson 1995 recognised this as the critical crisis of adolescence in the eight stages of development identity versus role confusion. He believes that a successful transition through childhood would lead to a progressive success to resolve this stage (Crawford). Erikson considers the fifth stage, that of adolescence, in the developmental process to be of particular importance.   He considers that by the end of this period of psychosocial moratorium, adolescents should have achieved ego identity,   that is the integration of their own self perceptions into their core identity which is both psychological and social. But he notes that some young people experience difficulty or find it impossible to commit themselves to adult roles, thus characterizing this as a period of identity crisis. When adolescents fail to achieve ego identity, it is considered to be identity role diffusion.   Applying Eriksons model to social work can help identify with individuals whether or not they have progressed successfully at previous life stages. It can also help individuals clarify and address their strengths, expectations and limitations, a duty expected of the social worker according to NOSS Key role 1(Crawford). The psychosocial perspective enables social workers to consider the influences of the relationship between the internal world of the service users and the social environment in which they live. (Howe 1987 cited in Crawford) However, Eriksons stages are criticised alongside other psychosocial stage approaches to human development because they do not incorporate difference and diversity. They are culturally specific and differences between sexuality and gender are not easily explained, because the theory was developed from a male perspective. Crawford Being too fixed and deterministic in real life, it is not possible to divide ones life into neat stages. The theory also does not consider the significance of social change in different societies and across different cultures. The model suggests there are universal experiences that all people encounter. Anthony Giddens 1991 cited in Crawford argues that modern society is continually changing, and that people pursue many different paths through their lives. Erikson describes the concept of a life cycle as implying some kind of self completion (Erikson, 1982 p. 9 cited in Crawford). This use of the word cycle can be criticised for implying a circular process whereby, in the later years of life, there is a return to the dependency of childhood. (Crawford) In conclusion this assignment has looked at Social workers need to develop an understanding of theories from a range of disciplines in order to take a holistic approach to their practice. (Crawford) Whilst it is important for social workers to have knowledge of these theories, none of the theories can be easily applied to explain a persons course of life. One theory may be relevant to a particular person at a particular moment in time. For example, one theory may be useful for child development, but not so useful in explaining the challenges of life events that influence growth and development in later life. (Crawford and Walker, 2003) All people are individuals and deserve the right to be treated as such. To do anything less would be seen as an act of oppressive practice. Social workers need to draw on many different resources and theories available to them in order to truly meet service users needs. (Beckett 2007)

Models of Criminal Justice: Exploring the Probation System Essay

Introduction There are three theories or models of criminal justice. The first one is the retributive theory while the second is the rehabilitative theory and the last is the restorative theory. The first basically concerns itself with the punishment of people by putting them in boot camps , in order to deter their ways. Such instills discipline and fear , which in turn reduces crime. The second one believes that working with these people change their ways reduce crime (The U .S . Penal System :Restorative and /or Retributive Justice . The third one aims to reintroduce and re-incorporate the persons back into the community after retribution or rehabilitation . The first one is optimistic and believes that people are innately good such that prison cells are built so that the prisoner inside the cell can be silent. As he is silent, he can meditate on his wrong-doings . This tradition believes that then spiritual transformation may take place thus rehabilitating such person . On the other hand , the second one is pessimistic, which is why facilities were built to bring about obedience. What is done is to â€Å"instill habits of work in people, help build their skills' then they will be rehabilitated . The third one, which believes that true rehabilitation takes place when such person is allowed back into the community and is a combination of both retributive and rehabilitative theories, seeks to : â€Å" (1 )deter future and past criminals from doing a crime because the threat of incarceration looms (2 ) incapacitate the offender to stop the individual from possibly endangering others (3 ) punish the criminal by serving time and living a restricted lifestyle and (4 ) rehabilitate them for release into society (Fuller , 125-27). By t... ...nistered in the community- for offenders considered nonviolent and low risk. (William H Dimascio, Seeking Justice: Crime and Punishment in American (New York: Edna McConnell Foundation, 1997),p.43 Conclusion I found an article from the Palm Beach Post were a 19-year old woman dodged a lengthy prison sentence for DUI manslaughter involving the death of two people and injury to two others. The Circuit Judge sentenced a sophomore attending the University of Florida to 15 years in prison, then suspended the sentence and put her on probation with a host of special conditions; one is that she spends a year in jail upon completion of her college degree. The other is her license is permanently revoked, although she can apply for a hardship license. There are other conditions, but know she is labeled a felon on any job applications she applies for. (Spencer-Wendell, 2009) Models of Criminal Justice: Exploring the Probation System Essay Introduction There are three theories or models of criminal justice. The first one is the retributive theory while the second is the rehabilitative theory and the last is the restorative theory. The first basically concerns itself with the punishment of people by putting them in boot camps , in order to deter their ways. Such instills discipline and fear , which in turn reduces crime. The second one believes that working with these people change their ways reduce crime (The U .S . Penal System :Restorative and /or Retributive Justice . The third one aims to reintroduce and re-incorporate the persons back into the community after retribution or rehabilitation . The first one is optimistic and believes that people are innately good such that prison cells are built so that the prisoner inside the cell can be silent. As he is silent, he can meditate on his wrong-doings . This tradition believes that then spiritual transformation may take place thus rehabilitating such person . On the other hand , the second one is pessimistic, which is why facilities were built to bring about obedience. What is done is to â€Å"instill habits of work in people, help build their skills' then they will be rehabilitated . The third one, which believes that true rehabilitation takes place when such person is allowed back into the community and is a combination of both retributive and rehabilitative theories, seeks to : â€Å" (1 )deter future and past criminals from doing a crime because the threat of incarceration looms (2 ) incapacitate the offender to stop the individual from possibly endangering others (3 ) punish the criminal by serving time and living a restricted lifestyle and (4 ) rehabilitate them for release into society (Fuller , 125-27). By t... ...nistered in the community- for offenders considered nonviolent and low risk. (William H Dimascio, Seeking Justice: Crime and Punishment in American (New York: Edna McConnell Foundation, 1997),p.43 Conclusion I found an article from the Palm Beach Post were a 19-year old woman dodged a lengthy prison sentence for DUI manslaughter involving the death of two people and injury to two others. The Circuit Judge sentenced a sophomore attending the University of Florida to 15 years in prison, then suspended the sentence and put her on probation with a host of special conditions; one is that she spends a year in jail upon completion of her college degree. The other is her license is permanently revoked, although she can apply for a hardship license. There are other conditions, but know she is labeled a felon on any job applications she applies for. (Spencer-Wendell, 2009)

What is Cryptography?

Technology has developed throughout the years, which has been shown by changes in different aspects of how people live their daily lives. One example could be the means of transportation which started from horses during early times to carriages, invention of automobiles, aircrafts, submarines and many more which we use at present. Through centuries, sending of messages has also evolved from messenger mail to electronic mail via the World Wide Web. Along with these are rising security threats to senders and receivers of those messages who fear that their mail would be opened by someone else.It is and has been the same problem ever since. How can these security threats and privacy invasions be avoided then? The main topic of this research is the importance of a science that helps everyone. It could be in terms of technology to the benefit of computer enthusiasts and industrialists, or simply for protection of the privacy of each citizen. The following pages would give the readers a bri ef introduction of the subject at hand, Cryptography. Along with its definition, history, forms and uses, readers would also be able to learn how important this science is and why each person should use it in their daily communication.According to the Merriam-Webster online dictionary, Cryptography is the enciphering and deciphering of messages in secret code or cipher, the computerized encoding and decoding of information. It is also known as secret writing. Derived from the Greek words kryptos, which means hidden and the grafo, meaning write, is the transformation of data into a secure message, so that unintended recepients would not be able to understand or use them. (Wikibooks, Inc. , 2007).Cryptography is used to hide information by means of encryption, therefore making data unreadable to those who don’t have the secret key that can decipher or decrypt the message into an understandable one. Encryption is done when information is transformed into something which others m ight see as useless. This is called ciphertext. The act of transforming the said information into an understandable format with the use of a cipher or secret key is called decryption. (Wikibooks, 2007) The use of cryptography is seen today through its many uses.These include the security of ATM cards, electronic commerce and computer passwords. These are used for access control and confidentiality of secure information. (Cryptography, 2007) Such techniques like microdots and combining words with images are used by cryptographers to hide information from unintended recepients. (Pawliw, 2006) The earliest known use of cryptography is Classical Cryptography. It shows that it has been thousands of years since cryptography was first done. History has stated that the first proof of the use of cryptography dates back to 2000 BC.It has been related with the Egyptians’ practice of hieroglyphics which consisted of complicated pictograms seen carved into monuments of Ancient Egypt. Thes e pictograms were hard to interpret and only a chosen few knew what their real meanings were. Some time within 500 and 600 BC, Hebrew scholars made use of simple substitution ciphers like the Atbash Cipher in order to solve these encrypted messages. According to Wikibooks, the first known use of a modern cipher was by Julius Caesar (100 BC to 44 BC):â€Å"†¦who did not trust his messengers when communicating with his governors and officers. For this reason, he created a system in which each character in his messages was replaced by a character three positions ahead of it in the Roman alphabet. † (Wikibooks, 2007) By the time of World War II, there has become a great use of mechanical and electromechanical cryptographic cipher machines, but the usage of these was very impractical. During this time, there were various developments in both mathematical and practical cryptography.When the period of modern cryptography began, Claude Shannon, father of mathematical cryptograph y, published the paper Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1949. Shortly after that, along with Warren Weaver, he published the book Mathematical Theory of Communication as well. Because of those publications, a solid theoretical basis for cryptography and for cryptanalysis was established, which made cryptography known only by secret government communications organizations such as the NSA.It was only in 1969 that the public again saw developments in the field of cryptography: â€Å"First was the DES (Data Encryption Standard) submitted by IBM†¦ in an effort to develop secure electronic communication facilities for businesses such as banks and other large financial organizations†¦ it was adopted and published as a FIPS Publication (Federal Information Processing Standard) in 1977†¦has been made effectively obsolete by the adoption in 2001 of the Advanced Encryption Standard†¦DES was the first publicly accessible cypher algorithm to be ‘blessed' by a national crypto agency such as NSA.The release of its design details by NBS stimulated an explosion of public and academic interest in cryptography. † (Wikibooks, 2006) Here are the important terms related to Cryptography in detail; Encryption is the act of hiding information using cryptography. Processed information in this manner is said to be encrypted. Decryption is the process of translating encrypted information. The Key is like a password used to encrypt and decrypt information. A transmission channel used to transmit information in secrecy is called a Secure Line, while a Public Line is the opposite.An example of which are public pay phones and the Internet. (Wooledge , 2000) There are several types of Cryptography being used today. In order to further explain the types of Cryptography, Wooledge compared the Key to a key to a door. First among these is the Symmetric Cipher, which can sometimes be called a symmetric key. Most of the time, it is used for simple types of cryptography because a same key is used to encrypt and decrypt the secret message.â€Å"Everybody who should have access to the room is given a copy of the key†¦put new information in, take old information out†¦if you send somebody a copy of the key by way of the Post Office, somebody working at the Post Office could intercept this key†¦allow them to access this same locked room, and do the same things with it†¦letting them read everything you locked up with that key, even letting them modify it. â€Å"(Wooledge , 2000) The Public Key Cryptography is more complex because in this type of cryptography there are two keys used and together, they are called a key pair.The key used to encrypt is called the public key, which can be given to anyone in order to send information to the owner of the private key, which will be used to decrypt information sent to him. The most common example of this is the use of electronic mail over th e internet, also known as email. The public key is an email address which one gives out to his friends. This allows them to send information to the holder of the secret key, the owner of the email address, the only one who has the password to open and translate the information sent to him or her.(Wooledge , 2000) A One Time Pad is used to send high security messages such as national secrets and is considered the only perfect encryption in the world. In this type of encryption, both the sender and receiver has a copy of the pad to be used as a symmetric key to hide and unhide a message sent over a secure line and destroys them after it has been used. A good example of this is the one seen in Mission Impossible movies, wherein Ethan Hunt receives messages that self-destruct. (Wooledge , 2000)For the sake of totality, it would be best to include Steganography, the science of hiding information from people who would spy on a person. This type of encryption is designed not to let spies k now that there is indeed a something hidden in a certain message. It is very effective, but only used occasionally. (Wooledge , 2000) Along with the internet, there is a large growth in the variety of forms of electronic communications, making its security very important. There are a number of enumerated uses for Cryptography such as protection of e-mail messages, credit card information, corporate and other important information.(Jupiter Media Corporation, 2004) After a brief background on Cryptography, readers would come to know why it is important to use them in their daily activities. The following are common concerns, goals or objectives that answer the above stated question. Message Confidentiality; Encrypted messages would only be understood by intended recepients of a certain message. If a sender would want to hide certain information from the public or from someone in particular, it would be best that cryptography is used.In that manner, only the receiver would have the key to translate the message into a useful and understandable one. Message Integrity; If an encrypted message is intercepted and changed during the sending process, it would easily be known by the receiver, which secures its integrity. Sender Authentication; It would be possible to make sure of the identities of both sender and recepient of the message. With cryptography, the recipient would be able to verify the true identity of the sender, along with the origin and destination of the message.Sender Non-Repudiation; This would prevent a sender from denying an intention to send and that he or she is the true sender of the said message. (Wikibooks, 2007) Though these cryptographic procedures are effective enough to achieve the goals, and concerns mentioned, it is still important for receivers and specially senders to practice caution such as creating a password with a very strong integrity, logging off private systems when they are not being used by the owner and keeping all private inf ormation to oneself. (Pawliw, 2006) Works Cited Cryptography. (2006).In Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary [Web]. Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. Retrieved January 24, 2007, from http://www. m-w. com/cgi-bin/dictionary? book=Dictionary&va=cryptography Cryptography. (2007). In Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia [Web]. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.. Retrieved January 24, 2007, from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Cryptography Pawliw, B (2006, January 13). Cryptography. Retrieved January 24, 2007, from Search Security. com Web site: http://searchsecurity. techtarget. com/sDefinition/0,,sid14_gci214431,00. html Wikibooks, (2006, November 1).Cryptography/History of Cryptography. Retrieved January 24, 2007, from Wikibooks, the Open-Content Textbooks collection Web site: http://en. wikibooks. org/wiki/Cryptography/History_of_Cryptography Wikibooks, (2007, January 10). Cryptography/Introduction. Retrieved January 24, 2007, from Wikibooks, the Open-Content Textbooks Collection Web site: http://en. w ikibooks. org/wiki/Cryptography/Introduction Wooledge , G (2000, October 11). What types of cryptography are there?. Retrieved January 24, 2007, from wooledge. org Web site: http://wooledge. org/~greg/crypto/node5. html

Research on George Washington

Research on George Washington The name of George Washington has been already known for almost 250 years. As the first president of the USA, he played a major role in the early shaping of the American nation ant its principles. Writing about such a famous person is a great choice, as you can take a chance to educate yourself and tell others about Washington, his ideas and life. Of course, you won’t write about his every step. It’s better to select one the most interesting subjects and make a detailed research within its scopes. I’d like to suggest you several points, which can help you to order your ideas and decide on an exact topic. Contribution. George Washington made many contributions in the early birth of America and he was absolutely sure which action would be the best for both the current time and the future. His great achievements had a strong influence on the future development of the country. Characteristics. The first president of America was very intelligent, resolute and organized. Apart from his leadership style, at the same time he was a simple man, who carefully listened to his supporters. Find out what were the other his key streaks, which helped him in his victories and achievements. Personal life. How many facts do people know about the President’s private life? The main focus is on the political side of his life, but the private one has no less interesting points. For example, there were childhood stories of chopping down his father’s cherry tree or skipping a silver dollar across the Potomac River. No matter what topic you choose, I’m sure that during you researching work on such a legendary person you will learn many important life lessons and realize that George Washington created a reasonable model for every American to follow and, despite some his bad decisions and failures, he succeeded in all respects.